The impact of submarine groundwater discharge on nitrogen input and nitrogen cycling processes in a southern Portugal lagoon
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摘要: 本研究以葡萄牙南部法鲁市里亚福尔摩萨潟湖为研究对象，探究夏初时节该系统海底地下水排放（SGD）的氮输入特征及其对潟湖氮生物地球化学循环的影响。结果表明，尽管地下河口的生物地球化学过程已显著削减SGD携带的氮负荷，但其仍是潟湖氮营养盐的重要输入源。SGD向潟湖输入硝酸盐的速率高达1.3(±1.0) ×103 kg/d，溶解有机氮（DON）输入速率为220.3(±163.3) kg/d，分别贡献了潟湖硝酸盐总输入的89%和DON总输入的37%。端元模型解析进一步揭示了约98%的硝酸盐与76%的DON源自陆源淡水地下水，凸显陆源淡水地下水氮污染对滨海生态系统的潜在压力。潟湖原位连续监测结果显示，SGD输入的外源硝酸盐在潟湖系统中被快速去除，去除速率达69.9(±68.5) μmol N/(m2·h)。结合潟湖面积，估算潟湖每日硝酸盐净去除总量相当于SGD输入硝酸盐总量的8.9倍。这一结果表明，潟湖内部硝酸盐的生物地球化学清除过程极为活跃，其综合去除能力远超单一SGD输入源，潟湖整体表现为一个高效的硝酸盐汇。同时，DON净生产速率高达36.3(±35.4) μmol N-DON/(m2·h)，表明陆源硝酸盐的大量输入显著增强了潟湖生态系统的生物同化作用。基于此，未来政府需强化对SGD氮输入的长期监测与精准管控，以保障滨海潟湖生态系统的健康与可持续发展。Abstract: This study investigated the nitrogen input characteristics of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) and its influence on the nitrogen biogeochemical cycle in the Ria Formosa lagoon system in Faro, southern Portugal, during the early summer season. The results showed that although biogeochemical processes within the subterranean estuary significantly reduce the nitrogen load transported by SGD, it remained an important source of nitrogen nutrients to the lagoon. The SGD-derived nitrate flux into the lagoon was as high as 1.3(±1.0) ×103 kg/d, and the flux of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) was 220.3(±163.3) kg/d, contributing 89% of the total nitrate input and 37% of the total DON input to the lagoon, respectively. End-member analysis further revealed that approximately 98% of nitrate and 76% of DON originated from freshwater groundwater, highlighting the potential pressure of land-sourced groundwater nitrogen pollution on coastal ecosystems. A 48-hour in situ continuous monitoring in the lagoon revealed that externally sourced nitrate from SGD was rapidly removed from the lagoon system, with a removal rate of 69.9(±68.5) μmol N/(m2·h). Considering the lagoon area, the estimated total daily net nitrate removal in the lagoon is equivalent to 8.9 times the total nitrate input from SGD. This result indicates that the biogeochemical nitrate removal processes within the lagoon are highly active, with a combined removal capacity far exceeding that of the SGD input alone; the lagoon as a whole thus acts as an efficient nitrate sink. Concurrently, the net production rate of DON was as high as 36.3(±35.4) μmol N-DON/(m2·h), indicating that the substantial input of land-sourced nitrate significantly enhanced biological assimilation within the lagoon ecosystem. Therefore, future efforts should prioritize the long-term monitoring and precise management of SGD-derived nitrogen inputs to ensure the health and sustainable development of coastal lagoon ecosystems.
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Key words:
- Submarine groundwater discharge /
- Subterranean estuary /
- Radon /
- Nitrogen /
- Portugal
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图 1 里亚福尔摩萨潟湖地理位置及采样站点示意图
Fig. 1 Schematic map showing the geographical location of the Lia-Formosa Lagoon and sampling sites
图 2 盐度时间序列监测图，深色区域表示夜间时段。图中同时标注了涨潮点和退潮点。
Fig. 2 Time series monitoring of salinity, the dark region indicates night time. High tide and low tide points are also included in the figure.
图 3 （A）1月至7月期间相邻钻孔的静水压力头（数据来源：www.snirh.pt）与总SGD中淡水成分（数据来源：Leote等[30]）；（B）不同钻孔的压力头测量值及2010年5月各钻孔总SGD中淡水成分的预测；帕尔梅拉斯庄园（C）和甘贝拉斯（D）地区淡水地下水成分与水位压头的回归趋势。平均值得出了本次调查中陆源淡水与再循环海水在总SGD中的比例（35.8%: 64.2%）。
Fig. 3 (A) Piezometric pressure head (data from www.snirh.pt) in adjacent boreholes and fresh groundwater composition in total SGD during January to July (data from Leote et al[30]); (B) pressure head measurements in different boreholes and prediction of the fresh composition in total SGD in each borehole in May, 2010; Regression trends between fresh groundwater composition and pressure head in Quinta Das Palmeiras (C) and Gambelas (D). The average produced the ratio of freshwater to recycled seawater in the survey (35.8%: 64.2%) in the total SGD.
图 4 不同来源的${{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $、DIN和DON对里亚福尔摩萨潟湖的贡献及比较
Fig. 4 Contributions and comparison of ${{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $, DIN, and DON from distinct sources to the Ria Formosa lagoon
图 5 铵盐、硝酸盐和DON在潟湖水体中浓度的变化（白天主要是低潮期，晚上是高潮期）
图中的黑点代表具体采样点位。
Fig. 5 Distribution of ${{\rm {NH}}_4^+} $, ${{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $, and DON in lagoon waters during daytime (mainly low tide) and nighttime (mainly high tide)
The black dots in the diagram represented specific sampling sites.
图 6 渠道入口与渠道末端${{\rm {NH}}_4^+} $、${{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $及DON通量的时间变化
Fig. 6 Time series analysis of ${{\rm {NH}}_4^+} $, ${{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $, and DON fluxes at channel inlet and channel end
图 7 葡萄牙南部水体的叶绿素含量，图像来源于哨兵-II卫星遥感数据。潟湖区域（图中黑框部分）是叶绿素的高值区域，叶绿素浓度可达10 μg/L以上。
Fig. 7 Chlorophyll concentrations in waters off the southern coast of Portugal, based on Sentinel-2 satellite remote sensing data. The lagoon area (the section outlined in black in the figure) was a region of high chlorophyll concentrations, with levels reaching 10 μg/L or higher.
表 1 陆源淡水地下水和再循环海水中${{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $与DON的端元值及贡献率
Tab. 1 Endmember values and individual contribution of ${{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $ and DON in fresh SGD and recycled saline SGD (SW: seawater, GW: groundwater).
222Rn平均活度
（Bq/m3）$ {{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $平均浓度
（μmol/L）DON平均浓度
（μmol/L）海水-地下水比例 排放速率
(104 m3/d)$ {{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $排放量
（kg/d）DON排放量
（kg/d）再循环海水 305 14.3 35.2 64.2% 10.4±7.7 20.8±15.4 52.1±38.6 陆源 淡水 6625 1600 208 35.8% 5.8±4.3 1.3(±1.0) ×103 168.2±124.7 总量 — — — 100% 16.2±11.9 1.3(±1.0) ×103 220.3±163.3 
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表 2 沿海半封闭系统（海湾与潟湖）全球氮收支比较。表中所有通量单位均为kg/d。比率表示来自SGD通量占总输入源的比例
Tab. 2 Comparison of global N budgets in coastal semi-enclosed systems (bay and lagoon), in the table, the unit for all fluxes is kg/d. Ratio indicates the portion of flux from SGD and total input sources
地区 $ {{\rm {NO}}_3^-} $通量 比例 DIN通量 比例 DON通量 比例 参考文献 马山港，韩国 / / 4.4×103 43% / / Lee等[57] 济州岛，韩国 / / 4.1×103 92% 1.8×103 98% Kim等[56] 帕图斯湖，巴西 9.4×103 41% 3.4×104 55% / / Niencheski等[58] 文昌湖，中国 1.5×102 51% 1.6×102 37% 145.7 9% Liu等[59] 哈纳莱伊湾，夏威夷 12.4 73% 13.9 60% / / Knee等[60] 佛罗里达湾，美国 4.3×103 38% 2.0×104 8.1×103 / Santos等[61] 穆里潟湖，拉罗汤加岛 27.4 87% 30.7 81% 12.7 13% Tait等[32] 吐露湾，中国 1.0×104 99% 1.6×104 98% / / Lee等[62] 马尼拉湾，菲律宾 / / 2.0×103 23% / / Taniguchi等[63] 金瓦拉湾，爱尔兰 2.7×102 99% 2.7×102 95% 8.2 62% Rocha等[64] 扎顿湾，克罗地亚 / / 4.6×102 98% / / Chen等[65] 辽东湾，中国 / / 1.0×105 83% / / Luo等[23] 敖江出海口，中国 4.3×104 / 7.9×104 58% 2.2×104 / Peng等[66] 北部湾，中国 / / 4.1×104 72% / / Wang等[67] 里亚福尔摩萨潟湖，葡萄牙 1.3×103 89% 1.3×103 69% 220 37% This study
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表 3 两处研究点因潮汐通量及涨潮与落潮间残留物导致的氮交换量，以及潟湖中的氮输入量与转化速率，单位为μmol N/(m2·h)。“—”表示该途径并非氮的来源。
Tab. 3 The N exchange due to tidal fluxes and residues between flood tide and ebb tide in two study sites, as well as N inputs and transformation rates in the lagoon, the unit is μmol N/(m2·h). The line “—” represents not ‘a source’ for this species.
途径 NH4+ NO3- DON 监测点1 输入 1.3(±0.07) ×103 4.2(±0.1) ×102 20.6(±0.5) ×103 输出 1.5(±0.1) ×103 3.6(±0.1) ×102 21.4(±0.4) ×103 差值 0.2(±0.02) ×103 0.6(±0.06) ×102 0.8(±0.02) ×103 监测点2 输入 1.5(±0.07) ×103 3.5(±0.3) ×102 19.7(±1.9) ×103 输出 1.8(±0.3) ×103 3.0(±0.2) ×102 20.4(±2.0) ×103 差值 0.3(±0.04) ×103 0.5(±0.06) ×102 0.7(±0.09) ×103 其它输入端元 SGD — 71.1±65.9 8.4±7.8 沉积物扩散 16.2±1.0 5.2±1.3 0.3±0.08 大气沉降 6.6 3.6 19.5 化学反应 迁移转化 −62.8±15.0 −69.9±68.5 16.8±15.7
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