Quality Assessment of Reanalysis Data and 39 CMIP6 Models Based on In-situ Sea Temperature Observations in the Upper to Middle Layers of the Bering Sea
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摘要: 基于2012年(冷年)和2014年(暖年)7月白令海B断面4个典型站点的观测数据,结合多套再分析数据和气候模式结果,采用相关系数、中心均方根误差和标准差等指标,系统评估了不同数据在约0−
1000 m海温结构中的再现能力及其多时间尺度表现。结果表明,白令海中上层(约0−200米)海温变率显著高于深层(约200米以深),再分析数据在各水层的平均误差整体小于模式数据;其中2012年中上层误差约为0.3−0.5 ℃,模式误差约为2 ℃量级,深层误差分别约为0.1 ℃和1 ℃量级。2014年多数模式误差较2012年有所降低,显示模式表现具有一定的气候背景依赖性。长时间序列分析表明,各数据均能再现“冬冷夏暖”的季节循环特征,但模式在中层温度上存在约1 ℃的系统性偏差;在年代际尺度上,海表温度异常变化较为一致,而中层异常在极值时间上存在数年尺度的偏移。研究量化了不同数据在白令海中上层海温再现中的误差幅度及不确定性特征,为区域海温变化分析及多源数据应用提供了定量参考。Abstract: Based on observational data from four representative stations along the B transect in the Bering Sea during July 2012 (a cold year) and 2014 (a warm year), along with multiple sets of reanalysis data and climate model results, this study systematically evaluates the ability of different data sources to reproduce sea temperature structures from approximately 0 to1000 meters and their performance over multiple time scales using correlation coefficients, root mean square errors (RMSE), and standard deviation as evaluation metrics. The results show that the temperature variability in the upper ocean (approximately 0–200 m) is significantly higher than in the deeper layers (below approximately 200 m). Reanalysis data generally have smaller average errors across all layers compared to climate model data. Specifically, for 2012, the error in the upper layers is about 0.3–0.5 ℃, while the model error is approximately 2 ℃; in the deep layers, the errors are about 0.1 ℃ and 1 ℃, respectively. In 2014, the errors in most models were lower than those in 2012, indicating that model performance is somewhat dependent on the climatic background. Long-term sequence analysis indicates that all data sources can reproduce the characteristic "cold winters and warm summers" seasonal cycle, but models show a systematic bias of about 1 ℃ in the middle layer temperature. On the interdecadal scale, the sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) shows consistent trends across data, while the middle layer temperature anomaly (MATA) exhibits time shifts of several years for extreme values. This study quantifies the error magnitude and uncertainty characteristics of different data in reproducing the upper ocean temperature structure in the Bering Sea, providing a quantitative reference for regional sea temperature variation analysis and multi-source data application. -
图 1 2012年CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据的海盆、陆坡和陆架上层200米以浅温度剖面图:(a)海盆57°N以南上层200米,(b)海盆57°N以北上层200米,(c)陆坡上层200米,(d)陆架上层50米
Fig. 1 Temperature profiles within the upper 200 m based on CMIP6 model data, reanalysis data, and observational data in 2012 over the basin, continental slope and shelf: (a) Upper 200 m of the basin south of 57°N, (b) Upper 200 m of the basin north of 57°N, (c) Upper 200 m of the continental slope, (d) Upper 50 m of the continental shelf
图 2 2012年CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据的海盆、陆坡上层
1000 米以浅温度剖面图:(a)海盆57°N以南上层1000 米,(b)海盆57°N以北上层1000 米,(c)陆坡上层1000 米Fig. 2 Temperature profiles within the upper
1000 m based on CMIP6 model data, reanalysis data, and observational data in 2012 over the basin, continental slope: (a) Upper1000 m of the basin south of 57°N, (b) Upper1000 m of the basin north of 57°N, (c) Upper1000 m of the continental slope图 3 2014年CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据的海盆、陆坡和陆架上层200米以浅温度剖面图:(a)海盆57°N以南上层200米,(b)海盆57°N以北上层200米,(c)陆坡上层200米,(d)陆架上层50米
Fig. 3 Temperature profiles within the upper 200 m based on CMIP6 model data, reanalysis data, and observational data in 2014 over the basin, continental slope and shelf: (a) Upper 200 m of the basin south of 57°N, (b) Upper 200 m of the basin north of 57°N, (c) Upper 200 m of the continental slope, (d) Upper 50 m of the continental shelf
图 4 2014年CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据的海盆、陆坡上层
1000 米以浅温度剖面图:(a)海盆57°N以南上层1000 米,(b)海盆57°N以北上层1000 米,(c)陆坡上层1000 米Fig. 4 Temperature profiles within the upper
1000 m based on CMIP6 model data, reanalysis data, and observational data of the CHINAREs in 2014 over the basin, continental slope: (a) Upper1000 m of the basin south of 57°N, (b) Upper1000 m of the basin north of 57°N, (c) Upper1000 m of the continental slope图 5 2012年海盆、陆坡和陆架区海温的空间泰勒图:CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据比较。(a)海盆57°N以南上层200米,(b)海盆57°N以南上层
1000 米,(c)海盆57°N以北上层200米,(d)海盆57°N以北上层1000 米,(e)陆坡上层200米,(f)陆坡上层1000 米,(g)陆架上层50米Fig. 5 Taylor diagrams of sea temperature in 2012 for the basin, continental slope and shelf: comparison between CMIP6 model data, reanalysis data, and observational data. (a) Upper 200 m of the basin south of 57°N, (b) Upper
1000 m of the basin south of 57°N, (c) Upper 200 m of the basin north of 57°N, (d) Upper1000 m of the basin north of 57°N, (e) Upper 200 m of the continental slope, (f) Upper1000 m of the continental slope, (g) Upper 50 m of the continental shelf图 6 2014年海盆、陆坡和陆架区海温的空间泰勒图:CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据比较。(a)海盆57°N以南上层200米,(b)海盆57°N以南上层
1000 米,(c)海盆57°N以北上层200米,(d)海盆57°N以北上层1000 米,(e)陆坡上层200米,(f)陆坡上层1000 米,(g)陆架上层50米Fig. 6 Taylor diagrams of sea temperature in 2014 for the basin, continental slope and shelf: comparison between CMIP6 model data, reanalysis data, and observational data. (a) Upper 200 m of the basin south of 57°N, (b) Upper
1000 m of the basin south of 57°N, (c) Upper 200 m of the basin north of 57°N, (d) Upper1000 m of the basin north of 57°N, (e) Upper 200 m of the continental slope, (f) Upper1000 m of the continental slope, (g) Upper 50 m of the continental shelf图 7 1950-2023年期间白令海区域(51-66°N,162-208°E)基于再分析与模式平均数据(包含模式:CIESM、CMCC-CM2-SR5、CanESM5、EC-Earth3、EC-Earth3-CC、EC-Earth3-Veg-LR、HadGEM3-GC31-MM和TaiESM1)的月平均时间序列:(a)海表温度(SST);(b)中层平均海温(MAT)。灰色阴影表示各模式结果间的标准差
Fig. 7 Monthly mean time series of (a) SST and (b) MAT based on reanalysis and multi-model mean data (including models: CIESM, CMCC-CM2-SR5, CanESM5, EC-Earth3, EC-Earth3-CC, EC-Earth3-Veg-LR, HadGEM3-GC31-MM, and TaiESM1) over the Bering Sea region (51-66°N, 162-208°E) during 1950-2023. Gray shading indicates the standard deviation among the model results
图 8 1950−2023年期间白令海区域(51−66°N、162−208°E)基于再分析与模式平均数据(包含模式:CIESM、CMCC-CM2-SR5、CanESM5、EC-Earth3、EC-Earth3-CC、EC-Earth3-Veg-LR、HadGEM3-GC31-MM和TaiESM1)的去除线性趋势后的年平均异常时间序列:(a)海表温度距平(SSTA);(b)中层平均海温异常(MATA)。时间序列经过11年滑动平均处理,灰色阴影表示各模式结果间的标准差
Fig. 8 Annual mean anomaly time series with the linear trend removed, based on reanalysis and multi-model mean data (including models: CIESM, CMCC-CM2-SR5, CanESM5, EC-Earth3, EC-Earth3-CC, EC-Earth3-Veg-LR, HadGEM3-GC31-MM, and TaiESM1) over the Bering Sea region (51−66°N, 162−208°E) during 1950−2023: (a) SSTA; (b) MATA. The time series have been processed with an 11-year moving average. Gray shading indicates the standard deviation among the model results
表 1 CMIP6模式数据信息[16]
Tab. 1 Information of CMIP6 mode data
序号 模式 所属机构(国别) 网格(经度×纬度×垂向层级) 1 ACCESS-CM2 CSIRO-BOM(澳大利亚) 360×300×50 2 ACCESS-ESM1-5 CSIRO-BOM(澳大利亚) 360×300×50 3 AWI-CM-1-1-MR AWI(德国) 830305 ×464 BCC-CSM2-MR BCC(中国) 360×232×40 5 CAMS-CSM1-0 CAMS(中国) 360×200×50 6 CESM2-WACCM NCAR(美国) 360×180×33 7 CIESM THU(中国) 320×384×60 8 CMCC-CM2-SR5 CMCC(意大利) 362×292×50 9 CNRM-CM6-1 CNRM-CERFACS(法国) 362×294×75 10 CNRM-CM6-1-HR CNRM-CERFACS(法国) 1442 ×1050 ×7511 CNRM-ESM2-1 CNRM-CERFACS(法国) 362×294×75 12 CanESM5 CCCMA(加拿大) 360×291×45 13 CanESM5-CanOE CCCMA(加拿大) 360×291×45 14 E3SM-1-1 DOE(美国) 360×180×60 15 EC-Earth3 EC-Earth-Cons(欧盟) 362×292×75 16 EC-Earth3-CC EC-Earth-Cons(欧盟) 362×292×75 17 EC-Earth3-Veg EC-Earth-Cons(欧盟) 362×292×75 18 EC-Earth3-Veg-LR EC-Earth-Cons(欧盟) 362×292×75 19 FGOALS-f3-L CAS(中国) 362×218×30 20 FGOALS-g3 CAS(中国) 362×218×30 21 FIO-ESM-2-0 FIO(中国) 320×384×60 22 GFDL-ESM4 NOAA-GFDL(美国) 360×180×35 23 GISS-E2-1-G NASA-GISS(美国) 288×180×40 24 HadGEM3-GC31-LL MOHC(英国) 360×330×75 25 HadGEM3-GC31-MM MOHC(英国) 1440 ×1205 ×7526 INM-CM4-8 INM(俄国) 360×180×33 27 INM-CM5-0 INM(俄国) 360×180×33 28 IPSL-CM6A-LR IPSL(法国) 362×332×75 29 KIOST-ESM KIOST(韩国) 360×180×52 30 MCM-UA-1-0 UA(美国) 192×80×18 31 MIROC-ES2L MIROC(日本) 360×256×63 32 MIROC6 MIROC(日本) 360×256×63 33 MPI-ESM1-2-HR MPI-M(德国) 802×404×40 34 MRI-ESM2-0 MRI(日本) 360×180×61 35 NESM3 NUIST(中国) 362×292×46 36 NorESM2-LM NCC(挪威) 360×385×70 37 NorESM2-MM NCC(挪威) 360×385×70 38 TaiESM1 AS-RCEC(中国) 320×384×60 39 UKESM1-0-LL MOHC(英国) 360×330×75 表 2 2012和2014年实测、再分析(SODA、GOEPR和GECCO3)和39个模式数据各站点的经度(E)和纬度(N)
Tab. 2 Longitudes (E) and latitudes (N) of each station for in situ observations, reanalysis data (SODA, GOEPR, and GECCO3), and 39 model datasets in 2012 and 2014
站点 实测数据 再分析数据 模式数据 2012年 2014年 2012年 2014年 2012年 2014年 海盆57°N以南 55°15'26"
172°18'05"54°43'31"
171°15'58"55°15'00"
172°15'00"54°45'00"
171°15'00"55°22'24"
172°16'34"54°37'24"
171°16'34"海盆57°N以北 57°24'07"
175°07'16"57°23'43"
175°06'38"57°30'00"
175°00'00"57°30'00"
175°00'00"57°22'24"
175°01'34"57°22'24"
175°01'34"陆坡 60°18'04"
180°28'53"60°17'57"
180°29'12"60°15'00"
180°30'00"60°15'00"
180°30'00"60°22'24"
180°28'53"60°22'24"
180°31'34"陆架 61°55'39"
183°34'57"61°55'57"
183°35'48"62°00'00"
183°30'00"62°00'00"
183°30'00"61°52'24"
183°31'34"61°52'24"
183°35'48"表 3 2012年CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据的海盆、陆坡和陆架不同水层的平均温差(单位:℃)
Tab. 3 Mean temperature differences (unit: ℃) of reanalysis data and CMIP6 model data relative to in situ observations across different water layers of the basin, continental slope, and continental shelf in 2012
区域 水层 SODA GOEPR GECCO3 模式平均 海盆57°N以南 中上层 0.02 0.35 0.32 1.16 深层 0.01 0.08 0.03 1.07 海盆57°N以北 中上层 0.07 0.32 0.24 2.29 深层 0.09 0.07 0.15 1.25 陆坡 中上层 0.23 0.79 0.38 2.02 深层 0.06 0.66 0.18 1.32 陆架 中上层 0.78 0.56 0.36 2.71 表 4 2014年CMIP6模式数据、再分析数据与实测数据的海盆、陆坡和陆架不同水层的平均温差(单位:℃)
Tab. 4 Mean temperature differences (unit: ℃) of reanalysis data and CMIP6 model data relative to in situ observations across different water layers of the basin, continental slope, and continental shelf in 2014
区域 水层 SODA GOEPR GECCO3 模式平均 海盆57°N以南 中上层 1.62 0.84 0.65 0.82 深层 0.11 0.03 0.05 1.07 海盆57°N以北 中上层 0.38 0.15 0.42 1.05 深层 0.06 0.07 0.06 1.20 陆坡 中上层 0.18 0.53 0.97 1.31 深层 0.14 0.67 0.00 1.30 陆架 中上层 0.09 1.14 0.26 1.68 表 5 2012年和2014年各站点符合评估标准的CMIP6模式数据序号(表1中对应序号)
Tab. 5 CMIP6 model data indices meeting the evaluation criteria at each station in 2012 and 2014 (corresponding to the indices in Table 1)
站点 2012年 2014年 海盆57°N以南上层200米 4、6、8、9、12、13、15、18、19、20、36、37、38 4、7、8、10、12、15、16、18、19、21、25、30、35、38 海盆57°N以南上层 1000 米12、15、17、18、37、39 7、8、12、14、15、16、17、18、19、20、22、25、31、34、35、36、37、38 海盆57°N以北上层200米 4、6、8、10、11、12、15、16、17、18、19、20、21、
29、30、31、32、34、36、37、382、6、7、8、12、15、16、19、21、22、25、30、31、32、33、38 海盆57°N以北上层 1000 米6、7、9、10、12、13、21、28、29、31、34、38 6、12、17、18、19、21、22、24、25、27、33、39 陆坡上层200米 6、8、14、16、19、21、36 1、2、6、7、8、9、10、11、12、15、16、18、19、21、22、24、28、
30、32、34、35、38、39陆坡上层 1000 米6、7、8、16、19、21、29、34、36、38 1、2、7、8、9、10、11、15、16、19、22、24、30、33、34、35、38、39 陆架上层50米 2、9、10、12、14、15、17、18、22、25、33、34、35、39 5、7、8、10、16、18、22、24、25、27、32、33、34、38、39 -
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